Barriers to Growth: Examining US Immigration Policy and the Visa System for Skilled Foreign Workers

Abstract

This paper contends that the US visa system for skilled foreign workers must change in order to meet the new economic demands and changing global challenges of this century. The US immigration policy and visa system are long due for a major overhaul, and at risk is the future of American economic growth and stability. Specifically, this paper recommends two key improvements. First, the H-1B visa annual cap and per-country quota should be eliminated to provide flexibility in relation to evolving economic needs. Second, a new agency overseeing the visa allocation process should be established, forging strong ties with both the private and education sectors. Implementing such measures will help streamline the visa process for skilled foreign workers and ensure continued US leadership in the increasingly competitive global knowledge economy.

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A "Nation of Immigrants"

The United States of America (US) has, throughout its history, been a "nation of immigrants." Today, this is no less true. However, the 21st century confronts the US with a major immigration reform challenge. The outcome will have far-reaching implications for US economic growth going forward, with potentially serious negative ramifications. This paper contends that the US visa system for skilled foreign workers must change in order to meet the new economic demands and rising global challenges of this century. The US must overcome domestic partisan politics and increasing anti-immigration public sentiment to ensure that the "best and brightest" continue to contribute their talents in the US. With extensive evidence of significant technological and entrepreneurial contributions by talented immigrants living in the US, the path forward is unambiguous; the onus is now on the "nation of immigrants" to remove bureaucratic and political barriers.

Immigrants and the New Global Knowledge Economy

The US has more immigrants than any other country, at a little over 38 million.1 One key component of the US' successful economic model has been its skilled immigrant population, and the American society has vastly benefited from their contributions to innovation and entrepreneurship. Recent empirical evidence shows that foreign-born individuals have made significant contributions to scientific research and technological progress in the US. In 2008, immigrants accounted for almost half of all scientists and engineers with a doctorate in the US.2 In 2006, foreign nationals residing in the US were either inventors or co-inventors in 24 percent of all filed patent applications.3 Overall, according to 2010 data, immigrants were three times more likely than US natives to file patents.4

Moreover, immigrant entrepreneurs founded one fourth of technology and engineering firms between 1999 and 2005, despite comprising only one eighth of the total US population.5 In Silicon Valley, startups with a foreign-born founder amounted to 52 percent of all new companies between 1995 and 2005.6 Furthermore, a recent report from The Partnership for a New American Economy found that more than 40 percent of Fortune 500 companies in 2010 were founded by immigrants or their children, employing 10 million people worldwide and generating $4.2 trillion in revenues.7 Undoubtedly, the impact of immigrant  scientists, engineers, entrepreneurs, and other highly skilled individuals has helped sustain both American prosperity at home and a competitive edge abroad.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s precipitated a fundamental rebalancing of the global socioeconomic landscape. Innovation, technological breakthroughs and human capital emerged as  the defining marks of progress, prosperity and stability. In his book The Lexus and the Olive Tree, Thomas Friedman succinctly observed that "innovation replaced tradition."8 Indeed, the rise of modern American power over the last two decades can in large part be attributed to the US' leading role in the new global knowledge economy. It is therefore not surprising that the 2010 US National Security Strategy insisted on "American innovation as the foundation of American power."9 Talented foreign-born individuals have been paramount in fostering this American power, and particularly in today's highly integrated and competitive international environment, the importance of skilled immigrants should not be underestimated. However, as the ensuing section will illustrate, current restrictions in the US immigration policy are jeopardizing continued economic contributions by the skilled foreign workforce.

The US Immigration Process

The inefficient and inflexible US visa system is a serious obstacle to a healthy influx of talented immigrants. Currently, there are two ways for skilled foreign workers to apply for employment-based immigration: through temporary visas or legal permanent status (US Permanent Resident Card, commonly referred to as the "green card").10 Of  the various temporary visas, the most common is the H-1B. In addition to presenting a cumbersome and lengthy application process, this visa program is capped at 65,000 visas per fiscal year. There are 20,000 additional visas available for individuals who hold advanced degrees from American universities, but this figure (85,000) is still an inadequate annual cap as there are, for instance, about 600,000 foreign students residing in the US.11

Competition has been fierce, with the maximum number of applications sometimes submitted on the first day of applications becoming available.12 From 2001 to 2011, the number of awarded H-1B visas only matched private sector employer visa requests from 2001 to 2003, when the US government temporarily raised the annual cap from 65,000 to 195,000 visas.13 For every other year during this period, the employer visa  requests were not met due to the 65,000 annual cap. More recently, the annual cap for fiscal year 2013 was reached by June 2012, in spite of declining demand due to the economic recession.14

Permanent employment-based immigration—which caters to exceptionally talented and specialized individuals—is capped at 140,000 green cards per fiscal year. However, this figure also includes applicants' spouses and children. Indeed, of the 166,000 green cards awarded through the employment-based visa program in 2008, 76,000 went to the applicants themselves and 90,000 to their spouses and children.15 The permanent employment-based immigration category is divided into five preference subcategories with their own provisions and limits. These subcategories include: 1) persons of extraordinary ability in various fields, including professors, researchers, and multinational executives (EB-1); 2) persons who are members of the professions holding advanced degrees or those with exceptional abilities in various fields (EB-2); 3) professionals, skilled workers, and other workers (EB-3); 4) "special immigrants," such as religious workers (EB-4); and 5) business professionals who invest $500,000 to $1 million in a commercial enterprise that employs at least 10 full-time US workers (EB-5).16 Nevertheless, some of these permanent employment-based visa subcategories are impractical or  underutilized. For example, there are 10,000 visas available for the EB-5 subcategory, yet only 500 such visas were issued annually between 1992 and 2004.17

In addition to the temporary and permanent visa caps, the per-country quota specifies that no single nationality can exceed 7 percent of the total number of awarded employment-based green cards per fiscal year. This amounts to only 9,800 green cards per country origin out of the annual limit of 140,000 and, in turn, creates an applicant bottleneck with some green card applicants waiting in line for years or even decades. China and India are the world's two most populous countries, and their citizens top the list of individuals seeking entry into the US. Together, they made up 22 percent of all employment-based applicants that were granted legal permanent status in 2009.18 Yet the per-country quota system means that many skilled immigrants from such populous nations are expected to wait patiently for years in order to obtain permanent residence status in the US. The National Foundation for American Policy reports that for skilled Indian workers applying for a green card, the estimated wait time is on average 12 years or more.19 The per-country quota seems especially unreasonable considering that countries vary greatly both in size and in outbound flows of skilled workers. As Fawn Johnson remarks, "under the current visa system, Iceland—a small country not known for producing highly skilled workers bound for the US—gets allotted the same number of visas as China."20

As a result of these and other restrictions on employment-based immigration, skilled foreign worker visas (temporary and permanent) have accounted for only 6.5 percent of all visas issued in the US, compared to 36 percent in Canada.21 According to The Wall Street Journal, Australia recently began offering 126,000 permanent visas to skilled foreign workers and their families, compared to 140,000 permanent visas offered by the US.22 However, Australia's total population constitutes only one tenth of the total US population. In 2006, less than 2 percent of all visas issued in the US (5.8 million) were in the H-1B category.23 According to  a December 2011 report by The American Enterprise Institute and The Partnership for a New American Economy, employment-based green  cards make up only 14 percent of the one million-plus green cards issued each year.24 In 2011, 1,062,040 individuals gained permanent resident status, and of those individuals, 139,339 (13.1 percent) were in the employment-based category.25 The majority of all green cards (non- employment and employment-based) awarded to new arrivals continue to be given to immigrants with family ties in the US. Of the 481,948 new arrivals that were approved for permanent resident status in 2011, 43 percent were family-sponsored applicants and only 3 percent were employment-based applicants.26 While our visa policy should support family cohesion, it is also critical to address the potentially damaging implications of limited quotas and unnecessarily restrictive conditions for highly skilled foreign workers seeking employment-based immigration to the US.

The current US immigration system was largely shaped by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson. Prior to this, the immigration system was based on nationality quotas favoring immigrants from western and northern Europe while excluding individuals from Africa and Asia. The new reforms eliminated these quotas and put into place an immigration system based on family ties and skills. The Immigration Act of 1990 established higher quotas for immigration to the US and expanded employment-based categories, including the creation of the EB-1 through EB-5 permanent visa preference subcategories. Nevertheless, the system continued  to  favor immigration based on family sponsorship. The US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) agency, which is part of the Department of Homeland Security, handles all immigration matters, from ensuring the security of the system to assisting with integration of immigrants into the American culture.27 The size of the agency—18,000 employees and contractors in 250 offices across the world—and the scope of its duties and responsibilities limits effective oversight and the improvement of branches such as employment-based immigration, which is only one of the many different immigration categories administered by USCIS.28

Implications: A Long-Term Economic Decline?

The bureaucratic rigidity of the US visa system has constrained private sector labor demand. Technology firms face increasing difficulty in filling job positions that require a skilled workforce, particularly amidst a rising shortage of highly educated US-born workers. Reports show that the US will be 3 million highly skilled workers short of its needs by 2018.29 The negative impact of this trend has already begun to surface. In 2007, for instance, Microsoft opened facilities in British Columbia, Canada to  attract foreign computer engineers unable to obtain visas in the US.30

The narrow scope of the US visa system also raises concerns that key global rivals will benefit as they develop their own knowledge economies and begin attracting talented individuals. China, for example, recently initiated the One-Thousand-Talents Program to bring back highly skilled Chinese researchers.31 Vivek Wadhwa accurately points out that "the world's best and brightest are not begging to be let into the US anymore."32 Between 2007 and 2008, for instance, visa applications for employment-based permanent visas fell by 50 percent.33 With an outdated visa system marked by limited quotas and lengthy process times, the US risks falling behind in the global competition for skilled and talented workers.

Another worrying trend has been that of foreign students returning to their native countries—rather than staying in the US—after graduating from American universities. Research suggests that most students fear being unable to obtain visas required to remain in the US, and are finding more opportunities to start their own businesses back home.34 A study from 2009 discovered that only 54 percent of Chinese students wished to stay in the US for several years after graduating from an American university, a significant drop from the historical rate of 92 percent.35 Similarly, The Economist remarked that "foreign-born college graduates are increasingly likely to leave America after gaining skills and qualifications."36 As competition from India, China and other countries grows, such outbound migration of educated young entrepreneurs, engineers and scientists could leave the US with its own "brain drain."

These trends are particularly alarming today as the baby boomer generation begins to retire, leaving significant gaps in the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields, which are increasingly dominated by foreign students in the US.37 In 2009, for example, almost one half of all US graduate students in the STEM fields were visa-holders. Additionally, foreign students accounted for 52% of all the doctorate degrees awarded.38 It is thus no surprise that New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg recently called the US' inability to retain its foreign students a "national suicide."39 Indeed, an absence of a refined immigration policy that offers a simpler and more accommodating visa process for graduating foreign students is both a missed opportunity and an unintended boost to global competitors, and may place the US at a long-term economic disadvantage.

These negative developments highlight the urgent need for comprehensive immigration reform. However, politics has had a dilatory effect on any such efforts. With a predominant focus on illegal immigration and border protection, a real discussion about improving the conditions for skilled foreign workers to enter and remain in the US has largely been shunned.

The Political Dimension and Policy Proposals

In recent years, politicians have strategically honed in on voters' sensitivities toward immigration, often amplifying its negative hues at the expense of potentially vast benefits. This, consequently, has had a profound impact on public opinion. In an October, 2011 Washington Post poll, 59 percent of respondents opposed increasing the number of visas for foreign workers with advanced degrees, while only 31 percent supported doing so.40 Political objectives and public opinion have helped stall  efforts to revitalize the US immigration policy. While the jaundiced focus on illegal immigration by US politicians has exacerbated anti-immigration sentiment among the voting electorate, the negative connotations of immigration have de-prioritized wider reforms as part of election-focused political agendas. During the 2011 presidential primaries, for example, Republican candidate Herman Cain proposed the construction of an electrified fence along the US-Mexico border as a way of solving the illegal immigration problem. 41 Though he would later explain that he was not serious, such strident and myopic political rhetoric has only added to the continued sidelining of wider immigration policy reforms.

A bipartisan overhaul of the visa system must be implemented, and two key improvements should take precedence. First, the H-1B visa annual  cap and per-country quota should be eliminated to provide some flexibility in relation to evolving economic needs. Self-imposed restrictions on human capital investment are unnecessary and unviable. As our labor demand adapts to changing global marketplace trends, so should our visa measures for skilled and valuable foreign workers. Research has shown, for instance, that a rise in the number of granted H-1B visas is closely correlated to a rise in patent filings in the US.42 William R. Kerr of Harvard Business School concluded in his paper linking H-1B visas and invention that "total invention increases with higher admission levels primarily through the direct contributions of immigrant inventors."43 In today's knowledge economy, such advantages are indispensable for future growth and stability. Furthermore, visa allocations should not be guided by outdated per-country and nationality quotas. Ideas, creativity and innovation are the underpinning of this era's socioeconomic landscape,  and our visa system must echo this modern reality.

Second, a new agency overseeing the visa allocation process should be established, forging strong ties with both the private and education sectors. The global shift that occurred at the end of the Cold War, ushering a new economic calculus of trade and investment liberalization, is not reflected in our immigration policy. Entry into the US is still managed by government bureaucracy that follows inveterate rules rather than realistic economic needs. Without input from private businesses that have specific labor demands or universities that invest significant capital in foreign students, the visa system cannot efficiently meet the requirements of our changing economy. The creation of an agency that is closely linked to these sectors and that has the authority to award visas on merit-based stipulations would ensure a more accurate and timely entry process for skilled foreign workers. Without antiquated visa limitations, such an agency would effectively coordinate supply and demand needs of the labor market and would ensure that educational investments are properly utilized. Only in this way can the US maintain its foothold on innovation and entrepreneurship, the new drivers of economic stability in today's age of globalization.

Addressing the Critics

Some critics point out that the US should focus its energy and funds on other catalysts of long-term growth—such as the US education system— and minimize reliance on skilled foreign workers. They also worry that immigrant workers harm US employment because they take away jobs from native workers. However, both these claims fall short of presenting a convincing argument against immigration reform.

First, though it is true that the US education system requires a major overhaul, particularly with regard to the aforementioned STEM fields, this is a long-term investment that will leave the country lagging behind in the meantime. The US government should undoubtedly recalibrate its efforts to expand opportunities for talented American-born individuals. For instance, programs catering toward exceptionally skilled native students account for only 0.02 percent of the education budget.44 This certainly must change. However, the argument that fundamental immigration  policy reform might hinder domestic education restructuring is misguided. An influx of highly skilled immigrants with advanced degrees will ensure that the US maintains its economic vitality concurrently with the process of education reform. The two need not—and should not—be viewed as competing policy priorities.

Second, data have shown that a rise in the number of immigrant workers (both skilled and less skilled) is positively associated with job creation in the US. In the past, there was ample fear (unsupported by research) that foreign workers would compete for jobs with US workers, posing a threat to job security for US natives. However, as a recent study has shown, immigrants with advanced degrees as well as skilled and less skilled temporary foreign workers boost employment for US natives. For example, an addition of 100 H-1B visa workers results in 183 new jobs for US natives, while an addition of 100 foreign-born workers in the STEM fields with advanced degrees from American universities results in 262 new jobs for US natives.45 Foreign workers also have a positive effect on the country’s GDP. Estimates show that immigrant productivity  has  raised the US GDP by $37 billion annually.46

It would be wrong to insist that the private sector have limitless access to foreign workers. There needs to be a system of checks and balances that ensures fairness and legality. However, it is also wrong to deny the importance of skilled foreign workers to continued US growth. In a fast- moving and increasingly flat world, the US simply cannot afford to keep the international talent waiting at its doors.

From Rhetoric to Reform?

There have been a few positive steps in the direction of immigration reform. The US House of Representatives approved The Fairness for High-Skilled Immigrants Act in November 2011, which would eliminate the per country annual quotas.47 After stalling the legislation for several months, Senator Charles E. Grassley of Iowa rescinded his decision in  July 2012 and reactivated the bill. US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has furthermore stated that she is "committed to streamlining the visa process, particularly for science and technology students."48 The 2010 US National Security Strategy has used similar rhetoric, remarking that "our ability to innovate and our economic prosperity depend on our nation's capacity to welcome and assimilate immigrants, and a visa system which welcomes skilled professionals from around the world."49 More recently, speaking at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in November 2012, the director of USCIS Alejandro Mayorkas admitted that "we as an agency have not been especially nimble in adapting to changes in the business space."50 He also remarked that his agency "needs to work much harder to facilitate legal avenues for foreign-born entrepreneurs to stay in the US."51 With this objective in mind, USCIS launched a new website specifically aimed at providing immigration assistance to foreign entrepreneurs.52

However, serious obstacles continue to thwart comprehensive reform. Particularly following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and the 2007-08 financial crisis, the rise of populist politics has tarnished progress toward significant visa system improvements. As Walter Russell Mead notes, "Jacksonian sentiment diminishes the ability of elite institutions and their members to shape national debates and policy."53 If the US is to maintain its global leadership, it must reach a bipartisan and sensible solution to the draconian immigration policy. While there have been some promising signs, sound reform remains neglected.

Conclusion

The role of skilled immigrant innovators and entrepreneurs has been essential to the strengthening of the US economy. However, without an overhaul of its inefficient immigration policy and visa system for skilled foreign workers, the US risks falling behind in an increasingly competitive international environment. The good news is that this is a self-imposed barrier. The bad news is that the global  race for talented and highly  skilled workers is rapidly picking up. Simon Proekt, Director of Business Development at Brightstar Corporation, notes that "everything moves faster abroad—new ideas spread like wildfire."54 In today's knowledge economy, driven by innovation and entrepreneurship, celerity is the new strategic fulcrum. The US needs to adapt its immigration policy to reflect this socioeconomic reality and ensure future growth and global leadership.

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Endnotes

1 The next largest immigrant population is found in Russia, at a little over 12 million. Jeb Bush, Thomas F. McLarty III, Edward Alden, "Independent Task Force Report No. 63: US Immigration Policy," (New York, NY: Council on Foreign Relations, July 2009), 12.

2 Immigration Policy Center, "Rebooting the American Dream: The Role of Immigration in a 21st Century Economy," American Immigration Council, November 2011, 12, accessed December 6, 2011, http://www.immigrationpolicy.org/sites/default/files/docs/IPC_-_Rebooting_the_American_Dream_110811.pdf.

3 Chris Farrell, "Immigration Can Fuel US Innovation—and Job Growth," Bloomberg Businessweek, July 9, 2010, accessed December 3, 2011, http://www.businessweek.com/investor/content/jul2010/pi2010079_863838. htm.

4 Michael Greenstone and Adam Looney, "Ten Economic Facts About Immigration," The Hamilton Project, September 2010, 11, accessed November 29, 2012, http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2010/9/immigration%20greenstone%20looney/09_immigration.

5 The Economist, "Weaving The World Together," November 19, 2011.

6 Farrell.

7 That figure exceeds the GDP of every nation other than the US, China and Japan. The Partnership for a New American Economy, "The 'New American' Fortune 500," June, 2011, accessed November 26, 2011, http://www.renewoureconomy.org/sites/all/themes/pnae/img/new-american-fortune-500-june-2011.pdf.

8 Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (Anchor Books, 2000), 11.

9 The United States of America National Security Strategy, May 2010.

10 This assumes that these individuals do not have relatives that are US citizens already, otherwise they would be able to seek entry into the US through the family-based immigration category.

11 Bush et al., "Independent Task Force Report No. 63," 15, 84.

12 Immigration Policy Center, "Rebooting the American Dream," 7.

13 Neil G. Ruiz, Jill H. Wilson and Shyamali Choudhury, "The Search for Skills: Demand for H-1B Immigrant Workers in the US Metropolitan Areas," The Brookings Institution, July 18, 2012, accessed November 27, 2012, http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports/2012/07/18-h1b-visas-labor- immigration#overview.

14 US Citizenship and Immigration Services, "USCIS Reaches Fiscal Year 2013 H-1B Cap," June 12, 2012, accessed November 23, 2012, http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/menuitem.5af9bb95919f35e66f614176 543f6d1a/?vgnextoid=ee9f3f93131e7310VgnVCM100000082ca60aRCRD& vgnextchannel=68439c7755cb9010VgnVCM10000045f3d6a1RCRD.

15 Bush et al., "Independent Task Force Report No. 63," 50.

16 US Citizenship and Immigration Services, "Working in the United States: Permanent Workers," accessed November 27, 2012, http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/menuitem.eb1d4c2a3e5b9ac89243c6a 7543f6d1a/?vgnextoid=cdfd2f8b69583210VgnVCM100000082ca60aRCRD &vgnextchannel=cdfd2f8b69583210VgnVCM100000082ca60aRCRD.

17 Darrell M. West, "Creating a 'Brain Gain' for US Employers: The Role of Immigration," The Brookings Institution, Policy Brief #178 (January, 2011), 5.

18 Immigration Policy Center, "Rebooting the American Dream," 9.

19 National Foundation for American Policy, "NFAP Policy Brief: Employment-Based Green Card Projections Point to Decade-Long Waits," November, 2009, accessed December 4, 2011, http://www.nfap.com/pdf/091117pb.pdf.

20 Fawn Johnson, "Big Step Forward on High-Skilled Immigration Bill," National Journal, July 11, 2012, accessed November 27, 2012, http://www.nationaljournal.com/blogs/influencealley/2012/07/big-step- forward-on-high-skilled-immigration-bill-11.

21 West, 3.

22 The Wall Street Journal, "Obama vs. Silicon Valley on Immigration," December 2, 2012, accessed December 4, 2012, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB100014241278873247051045781535205467 78206.html.

23 Rohan Poojara, "The US Shouldn't Wait to Fix Immigration for Skilled Workers," National Review, October 17, 2011, accessed December 7, 2011, http://www.nationalreview.com/corner/280387/us-shouldnt-wait-fix-immigration-skilled-workers-rohan-poojara.

24 American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research and The Partnership for a New American Economy, "Immigration and American Jobs," December, 2011, 12, accessed December 1, 2012, http://www.renewoureconomy.org/sites/all/themes/pnae/img/NAE_Im-AmerJobs.pdf.

25 US Department of Homeland Security, "Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2011," Table 6, accessed November 28, 2012, http://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immigration- statistics/yearbook/2011/ois_yb_2011.pdf.

26 Ibid., Table 7.

27 US Department of Homeland Security, "About Us," accessed November 17, 2012, http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/menuitem.eb1d4c2a3e5b9ac89243c6a 7543f6d1a/?vgnextoid=2af29c7755cb9010VgnVCM10000045f3d6a1RCRD &vgnextchannel=2af29c7755cb9010VgnVCM10000045f3d6a1RCRD.

28 USCIS also must manage refugee-based, political asylum-based, family- based, and diversity-lottery based immigration categories, among others.

29 Currently, the US ranks 17th worldwide in the number of science degrees awarded. Elizabeth G. Olson, "Confronting the Coming American Worker Shortage," CNN Money, May 20, 2011, accessed November 28, 2012, http://management.fortune.cnn.com/2011/05/20/confronting-the-coming- american-worker-shortage.

30 National Public Radio (NPR), "Searching for Skilled High-Tech Workers," September 7, 2007, accessed December 5, 2011, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14241565.

31 Raymond Zhong, "Let a Thousand Talents Bloom," The Wall Street Journal, February 2, 2011, accessed November 30, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB100014240527487034459045761175634319 38014.html.

32 Vivek Wadhwa, "We Need to Stop America's Brain Drain," The Washington Post, October 4, 2011, accessed December 2, 2011, http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2011-10-04/national/35278115_1_skilled- immigrants-skilled-worker-visas-permanent-resident-visas.

33 Anabelle Garay, "Petitions for US Worker Green Cards Down Sharply," The Associated Press, August 6, 2009, accessed November 29, 2011, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/economy/employment/2009-08-06-green-cards_N.htm.

34 Immigration Policy Center, "Rebooting the American Dream," 9.

35 Richard Freeman et al., "Losing the World's Best and Brightest: America's New Immigrant Entrepreneurs, Part V," Kauffman Foundation, March 2009, accessed November 27, 2012, http://www.kauffman.org/research-and- policy/losing-best.aspx.

36 The Economist, "Moving Out, On and Back," August 27, 2011. Over the past decade, about 500,000 Chinese have studied abroad and subsequently returned home. The Economist, "The Magic of Diasporas," November 19, 2011.

37 The "baby boomer" generation refers to the individuals born in the post- World War II period of 1946-1964.

38 These figures were presented in a September 2012 letter sent to Congress and the White House by more than 100 university presidents. Sandra Hernandez, "Is Congress Responsible for a US brain drain?," Los Angeles Times, September 26, 2012, accessed December 3, 2012, http://articles.latimes.com/2012/sep/26/news/la-ol-immigration-visas-students-20120926.

39 Henry Goldman and William Selway, "US Immigration Policy Risks 'Suicide,' Bloomberg Says," Bloomberg, June 15, 2011, accessed December 6, 2011, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-06-15/u-s-immigration-policy-risks-suicide-bloomberg-says-1-.html.

40 The Washington Post/Bloomberg News Poll, October 6-9, 2011, accessed December 2, 2011, http://www.pollingreport.com/immigration.htm.

41 The Economist, "Crying Wolf," November 19, 2011.

42 Vivek Wadhwa, "Don't Blame H-1B Workers for Woes," Bloomberg Businessweek, February 9, 2009, accessed December 6, 2011, http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/feb2009/tc2009029_3338 99.htm.

43 William R. Kerr and William F. Lincoln, "The Supply Side of Innovation: H-1B Visa Reforms and US Ethnic Invention," Harvard Business School, Working Paper (December 2008), accessed November 29, 2012, http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Publication%20Files/09-005.pdf.

44 Jonathan Wai, "The US Needs To Focus Its Educational Efforts On Talented Americans," Tech Crunch, November 11, 2012, accessed December 4, 2012, http://techcrunch.com/2012/11/11/we-need-to-focus-on-talented-americans.

45 American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, "Immigration and American Jobs," 4.

46 Alex Nowrasteh and Rohan Poojara, "America Must Learn From Britain's Failed Immigration Policy," The Daily Caller, November 16, 2011, accessed December 9, 2011, http://dailycaller.com/2011/11/16/america-must-learn-from-britains-failed-immigration-policy.

47 Tamar Jacoby, "Congress' Small Step Toward Immigration Reform," Los Angeles Times, December 7, 2011, accessed December 12, 2011, http://articles.latimes.com/2011/dec/07/opinion/la-oe-jacoby-immigration- reform-20111207.

48 Bush et al., "Independent Task Force Report No. 63," 4.

49 The United States of America National Security Strategy, 29.

50 Julie M. Donnelly, "US immigration official comes to MIT, vows to 'adapt to business landscape'," Boston Business Journal, November 28, 2012, accessed November 29, 2012, http://www.bizjournals.com/boston/news/2012/11/28/us-immigration- official-vows-to.html?page=all.

51 Ibid.

52 The new website is available online at: http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/eir. Emily Deruy, "Silicon Valley Helps Streamline the Immigration Process," ABC News, November 29, 2012, accessed December 2, 2012, http://abcnews.go.com/ABC_Univision/Politics/website-streamlines-immigration-process-foreign-born- entrepreneurs/story?id=17830313#.UOSkL5PjlH8.

53 Walter Russell Mead, "The Tea Party and American Foreign Policy: What Populism Means for Globalism," Foreign Affairs 90:2 (March/April 2011):

34. The term "Jacksonian" refers to the seventh US President, Andrew Jackson, and is today associated with the modern day Tea Party movement.

54 Author's interview with Simon Proekt, Director of Business Development, Brightstar Corporation, December 4, 2011.